Transparent conducting oxides (TCO) are widely used in modern life for displays, touch panels, solar cells, and smart windows. TCOs should have a large band gap to be transparent (e.g., >3.2 eV), and high mobility and carrier concentration to be conductive. Main group metals (e.g., with a closed d10 orbital) oxides such as indium oxide, tin oxide, and zinc oxide, are known to be good TCO materials because of their high mobility which originates from the overlap of the conduction band, which is mostly composed of s orbitals, and a large band gap (e.g., >3.2 eV). High carrier concentration can be achieved by aliovalent doping to the host metal oxides, such as tin doped indium oxide (e.g., indium-tin oxide, ITO). However, increasing the carrier concentration can often decrease the mobility because the aliovalent doping ions can act as scattering centers for the electrons. This inverse relationship between mobility and carrier concentration can limit the conductivity of TCO films. The compositions and methods discussed herein addresses these and other needs.